In Peru, the Cerro Rico's ore was processed from the local mercury mine of Huancavelica, while in Mexico mercury was imported from the Almadén mercury mine in Spain. 1500–1850), Timeline of imperialism § Colonization of North America, "Interacciones entre españoles de Chiloé y Chonos en los siglos XVII y XVIII: Pedro y Francisco Delco, Ignacio y Cristóbal Talcapillán y Martín Olleta", Encyclopedia of Latin American History and Culture 1996, "Su Majestad quiere gobernar: la Administración española en Indias durante los siglos XVI y XVII", "Las instituciones políticas en la región de Cuyo", "El gobierno y la imagen de la Monarquía Hispánica en los viajeros de los siglos XVI y XVII. [110] In order to control the municipal life, the Crown ordered the appointment of corregidores and alcaldes mayores to exert greater political control and judicial functions in minor districts. The crown created civil and religious structures to administer this vast territory. Miller, Gary. The Aztecs. The creation of the ecclesiastical hierarchy of the diocesan clergy marked a turning point in the crown's control over the religious sphere. Two armored cars showed up but didn’t fight. 1 (2012): 26-40. Queen Isabel was the first monarch that laid the first stone for the protection of the indigenous peoples in her testament in which the Catholic monarch prohibited the enslavement of the indigenous peoples of the Americas. His fall from power is viewed as an example of the weakening of the crown in the mid-seventeenth century since it failed to protect their duly appointed bishop. Works by historians in the twentieth and twenty-first centuries have expanded the understanding of the impact of the Spanish conquest and changes during the more than three hundred years of Spanish rule. The officials of the royal treasury at each level of government typically included two to four positions: a tesorero (treasurer), the senior official who guarded money on hand and made payments; a contador (accountant or comptroller), who recorded income and payments, maintained records, and interpreted royal instructions; a factor, who guarded weapons and supplies belonging to the king, and disposed of tribute collected in the province; and a veedor (overseer), who was responsible for contacts with native inhabitants of the province, and collected the king's share of any war booty. In the twentieth century, there have been a number of films depicting the life of Christopher Columbus. Pope Alexander VI in a 4 May 1493 papal decree, Inter caetera, divided rights to lands in the Western Hemisphere between Spain and Portugal on the proviso that they spread Christianity. Cortes and Pizarro were able to use the same tactic to defeat both of the empires. Important ones include Santiago de Guatemala (1524); Puebla (1531); Querétaro (ca. [122] "The 1539 inquisition and trial of Don Carlos of Texcoco in early Mexico.". “Venezuela: The Colonial Era” in ‘’Encyclopedia of Latin American History and Culture. Hispanic American Historical Review 53.4 (1973): 581-599. The New Laws of 1542 were the result, limiting the power of encomenderos, the private holders of grants to indigenous labor previously held in perpetuity. It was the first step in a long campaign that took decades of fighting to subdue the mightiest empire in the Americas. Stanford: Stanford University Press 1964. How can stereotyping influence my career or career choice? The ideas from the French and the American Revolution influenced the efforts. The Catholic Historical Review 64.2 (1978): 168-184. As Spain’s New World empire expanded, Spanish conquerors met the massive empires of Central and South America, civilizations that dwarfed anything found in North America. The reorganization of administration has been called "a revolution in government. Spanish explorations of other islands in the Caribbean and what turned out to be the mainland of South and Central America occupied them for over two decades. Spanish settlers found relatively dense populations of indigenous peoples, who were agriculturalists living in villages ruled by leaders not part of a larger integrated political system. After several attempts to set up independent states in the 1810s, the kingdom and the viceroyalty ceased to exist altogether in 1819 with the establishment of Gran Colombia. In Mexico, Bishop Juan de Zumárraga prosecuted and had executed in 1539 a Nahua lord, known as Don Carlos of Texcoco for apostasy and sedition for having converted to Christianity and then renounced his conversion and urged others to do so as well. "Hoofprints: Cattle Ranching and Landscape Transformation" in, First relation letter from Pedro de Valdivia to emperor Charles V, Population history of indigenous peoples of the Americas, Latin American economy § Colonial era and Independence (ca. [111] Their functions were governing the respective municipalities, administering of justice and being appellate judges in the alcaldes menores' judgments,[112] but only the corregidor could preside over the cabildo. Spanish Government in the Americas. Alcaldías mayores were larger districts with a royal appointee, the Alcalde mayor. The composition of the expedition was the standard pattern, with a senior leader, and participating men investing in the enterprise with the full expectation of rewards if they did not lose their lives. They forbade the maltreatment of natives, and endorsed the Indian Reductions with attempts of conversion to Catholicism. [129][130][131], The largest population in Spanish America was and remained indigenous, what Spaniards called "Indians" (indios), a category that did not exist before the arrival of the Europeans. Vol. The Spanish-American War by David Trask. The Jesuits were effective missionaries in frontier areas until their expulsion from Spain and its empire in 1767. "Chile: Colonial Foundations" in Encyclopedia of Latin American History and Culture, vol. Tribute goods in Mexico were most usually lengths of cotton cloth, woven by women, and maize and other foodstuffs produced by men. The Spanish network needed a port city so that inland settlements could be connected by sea to Spain. Tap card to see definition . The exchange did not go one way. In Mexico, refining took place in haciendas de minas, where silver ore was refined into pure silver by amalgamation with mercury in what was known as the patio process. Charles revoked the grant in 1545, ending the episode of German colonization. The Audiencias were initially constituted by the crown as a key administrative institution with royal authority and loyalty to the crown as opposed to conquerors and first settlers. ‘’The Aztecs under Spanish Rule. “The Incas Under Spanish Colonial Institutions”. What can be called the visions of the vanquished, indigenous accounts written in the sixteenth century, are a rare case of history being written by those other than the victors. They’re not professional soldiers, but mercenaries and adventurers, led by a retired army captain, Francisco Pizarro. Cavalrymen were given larger shares of the treasure than infantrymen, and some soldiers would save up to buy horses as … Hernan Cortez. The crown of Castile financed more of his trans-Atlantic journeys, a pattern they would not repeat elsewhere. Spaniards persuaded the leaders of subordinate city-states and one city-state never conquered by the Aztecs, Tlaxcala, to join them in huge numbers, with thousands, perhaps tens of thousands of indigenous warriors. The first expansion of territory was the conquest of the Muslim Kingdom of Granada on January 1, 1492, the culmination of the Christian Reconquest of the Iberian peninsula, held by the Muslims since 711. Settled from the south were Buenos Aires (1536, 1580); Asunción (1537); Potosí (1545); La Paz, Bolivia (1548); and Tucumán (1553). In Mexico, the crown established the General Indian Court (Juzgado General de Indios), which heard disputes affecting individual indigenous as well as indigenous communities. The Franciscans took over some former Jesuit missions and continued the expansion of areas incorporated into the empire. The early Caribbean proved a massive disappointment for Spaniards, who had hoped to find mineral wealth and exploitable indigenous populations. We are unaware of a single, comprehensive list of all these soldiers. "Social climbers: Changing patterns of mobility among the Indians of colonial Peru." A second (and permanent) settlement was established in 1580 by Juan de Garay, who arrived by sailing down the Paraná River from Asunción, now the capital of Paraguay. Stanford: Stanford University Press 1992. [152], The life of seventeenth-century Mexican nun, Sor Juana Inés de la Cruz, renowned in her lifetime, has been portrayed in a 1990 Argentine film, I, the Worst of All[153] and in a TV miniseries Juana Inés. Crown approval through the Council of the Indies was needed for the establishment of bishoprics, building of churches, appointment of all clerics. Collier, Simon. Cacao beans for chocolate emerged as an export product as Europeans developed a taste for sweetened chocolate. [148] A major production in Mexico was the 1998 film, The Other Conquest, which focuses on a Nahua in the post-conquest era and the evangelization of central Mexico. The royal official in charge of a district was the Corregidor, who was appointed by the viceroy, usually for a five-year term. Cities were governed on the same pattern as in Spain and in the Indies the city was the framework of Spanish life. Later conquests in Mexico were protracted campaigns with less spectacular results than the conquest of the Aztecs. Warren, J. Benedict. One was the presence or absence of dense, hierarchically organized indigenous populations that could be made to work. Spaniards established a network of settlements in areas they conquered and controlled. The Spanish brought new crops for cultivation. Francisco de Ibarra led an expedition from Zacatecas in northern New Spain, and founded Durango. [116] Presidios had a resident commanders, who set up commercial enterprises of imported merchandise, selling it to soldiers as well as Indian allies. [75], The indigenous populations in the Caribbean became the focus of the crown in its roles as sovereigns of the empire and patron of the Catholic Church. Hispanic American Historical Review, vol. The governors exercised judicial ordinary functions of first instance, and prerogatives of government legislating by ordinances. Many institutions established in Castile found expression in The Indies from the early colonial period. The diocese was in turn divided into smaller units, the parish, staffed by a parish priest. For other uses, see, Assertion of royal control in the early Caribbean, Civil administrative districts, provinces, Frontier institutions – presidio and mission, Early economy of indigenous tribute and labor. The introduction of sheep production was an ecological disaster in places where they were raised in great numbers, since they ate vegetation to the ground, preventing the regeneration of plants.[53]. These could be sold in markets and thereby converted to cash. There were few permanent settlements, but Spaniards settled the coastal islands of Cubagua and Margarita to exploit the pearl beds. During the Bourbon era, even when the crown systematically appointed peninsular-born Spaniards to royal posts rather than American-born, the cabildos remained in the hands of local elites. Who were the … [citation needed]. [76] In Mexico, Don Martín Cortés, the son and legal heir of conqueror Hernán Cortés, and other heirs of encomiendas led a failed revolt against the crown. Spain sought similar wealth, and authorized Columbus’s voyage sailing west. Between 1895 and 1898 Cuba and the Philippine Islands revolted against Spain.The Cubans gained independence, but the Filipinos did not. Residences of the officials and elites were closest to the main square. He became deeply indebted to the German Welser and Fugger banking families. [32] South of the Bío-Bío River the Mapuche successfully reversed colonization with the Destruction of the Seven Cities in 1599–1604. In the twentieth century, Garatuza's life was the subject of a 1935 film[155] and a 1986 telenovela, Martín Garatuza. [114], Most Spanish settlers came to the Indies as permanent residents, established families and businesses, and sought advancement in the colonial system, such as membership of cabildos, so that they were in the hands of local, American-born (crillo) elites. Queen Isabel put an end to formal slavery, declaring the indigenous to be vassals of the crown, but Spaniards' exploitation continued. Amadis of Gaul, Palmerin of England, The Exploits of Esplandidn, Don Belianis — all these works were filled with heroes, queens, monsters, and enchantments; and all, it is needless to remark, held an honored place upon the shelves of Miguel de Cervantes, that Spanish … Most soldiers called into service for the Spanish-American War served with regiments raised by their state. The soldiers in the Spanish battalion advanced fifteen metres but then retreated to their trenches. He was not only given no assistance in the struggle against foreign diseases, but was prevented from adopting even the most elementary measures to secure his food, clothing, and shelter. As many as 60 salaried soldiers were garrisoned in presidios. "Blasco Núñez Vela" in Encyclopedia of Latin American History and Culture, vol. What hours is aldi open on Easter Sunday? Warren, J. Princeton University Press, 1984. "[104] As with many colonial institutions, corregimiento had its roots in Castile when the Catholic Monarchs centralize power over municipalities. Lockhart and Schwartz, Early Latin America, p.89. The veedor, or overseer, position quickly disappeared in most jurisdictions, subsumed into the position of factor. Aguirre subsequently wrote a letter to Philip II bitterly complaining about the treatment of conquerors like himself in the wake of the assertion of crown control over Peru. Spanish possession and rule of its remaining colonies in the Americas ended in that year with its sovereignty transferred to the United States. "[55] Reforms sought to centralize government control through reorganization of administration, reinvigorate the economies of Spain and the Spanish empire through changes in mercantile and fiscal policies, defend Spanish colonies and territorial claims through the establishment of a standing military, undermine the power of the Catholic church, and rein in the power of the American-born elites.[56]. One in 1949 stars Frederic March as Columbus. The conquest of the Aztec empire involved the combined effort of armies from many indigenous allies, spearheaded by a small Spanish force of conquistadors. The Kingdom of Portugal authorized a series of voyages down the coast of Africa and when they rounded the southern tip, were able to sail to India and further east. Spaniards had some knowledge of the existing indigenous practices of labor and tribute, so that learning in more detail what tribute particular regions delivered to the Aztec empire prompted the creation of Codex Mendoza, a codification for Spanish use. +2. Expeditions continued into the 1540s and regional capitals founded by the 1550s. Restall, Matthew. Far more famous now is Lope de Aguirre, who led a mutiny against Ursúa, who was murdered. The tribes or kingdoms that helped the Spaniards were … In 1810 Mexico declared independence, with the Mexican War of Independence following for over a decade. However, that was only the beginning. Cane sugar imported from the Old World was a high value, a low bulk export product that became the bulwark of tropical economies of the Caribbean islands and coastal Tierra Firme (the Spanish Main), as well as Portuguese Brazil. Spaniards had seen the disappearance of the indigenous populations in the Caribbean, and with that, the disappearance of their main source of wealth, propelling Spaniards to expand their regions of control. The Maya world: Yucatec culture and society, 1550-1850. Vol. [104] The Bourbon-era intendants were appointed and relatively well paid. That expedition was to make world history. [11] The deeply pious Isabella saw the expansion of Spain's sovereignty inextricably paired with the evangelization of non-Christian peoples, the so-called “spiritual conquest” with the military conquest. As governor, Portola was ordered to arrest and expel all Jesuits from their well-established colleges and 14 missions; many of these missions were given to the Franciscans. [86] Indigenous noblemen were particularly important in the early period of colonization, since the economy of the encomienda was initially built on the extraction of tribute and labor from the commoners in their communities. Unlike Spanish expansion in the Caribbean, which involved limited armed combat and sometimes the participation of indigenous allies, the conquest of central Mexico was protracted and necessitated indigenous allies who chose to participate for their own purposes. He strongly influenced the formulation of colonial policy under the Catholic Monarchs, and was instrumental in establishing the Casa de Contratación (House of Trade) (1503), which enabled crown control over trade and immigration. [citation needed] The overwhelming cause of the decline in both Mexico and Peru was infectious diseases, such as smallpox and measles,[128] although the brutality of the Encomienda also played a significant part in the population decline. "La catastrophe démographique" (The Demographic Catastrophe) in. Expeditions continued to explore territories in hopes of finding another Aztec or Inca empire, with no further success. New York: Cambridge University Press 1994. sfn error: no target: CITEREFBrading1971 (, Kuethe, Allan J. They were referred to as Españoles and Españolas, and later being differentiated by the terms indicating place of birth, peninsular for those born in Spain; criollo/criolla or Americano/Ameriana for those born in the Americas. The other was the presence or absence of an exploitable resource for the enrichment of settlers. During the early era and under the Habsburgs, the crown established a regional layer of colonial jurisdiction in the institution of Corregimiento, which was between the Audiencia and town councils. Cortés’s seeking indigenous allies was a typical tactic of warfare: divide and conquer. What the Spanish did do is set up a Caste System. thespanish soldiers were called conquerors What were the Spanish soldiers who conquered the Americas called? Religious orders had their own internal regulations and leadership. A checkerboard pattern radiated outward. In the Caribbean, there was no large-scale Spanish conquest of indigenous peoples, but there was indigenous resistance. Gonzalo Jiménez de Quesada was the leading conquistador with his brother Hernán second in command. The rural regions remained highly indigenous, with little interface between the large numbers of indigenous and the small numbers of the República de Españoles, which included Blacks and mixed-race castas. It became the second-most important export product from Spanish America after silver. Two major factors affected the density of Spanish settlement in the long term. [113] However, both charges were also put up for sale freely since the late 16th century. Ovando fitted out Magellan's voyage of circumnavigation, and became the first President of the Council of the Indies in 1524. The Aztec empire was a fragile confederation of city-states[citation needed]. Burkholder, Mark A. and Lyman L. Johnson. [125][126] When the formal institution of the Inquisition was established in 1571, indigenous peoples were excluded from its jurisdiction on the grounds that they were neophytes, new converts, and not capable of understanding religious doctrine. Held in the Colegio de San Gregorio, in the Spanish city of Valladolid, it was a moral and theological debate about the colonization of the Americas, its justification for the conversion to Catholicism and more specifically about the relations between the European settlers and the natives of the New World. "Nicolás de Ovando" in, sfn error: no target: CITEREFGóngora1998 (, sfn error: no target: CITEREFLagos_Carmona1985 (, sfn error: no target: CITEREFHistoria_general_de_España1992 (, harvnb error: no target: CITEREFChipman2005 (, sfnm error: no target: CITEREFChipman2005 (. [72] Upon their failure to effectively protect the indigenous and following the Spanish conquest of the Aztec Empire and the Spanish conquest of Peru, more stringent laws to control conquerors' and settlers' exercise of power, especially their maltreatment of the indigenous populations, were promulgated, known as the New Laws (1542). During the Bourbon Reforms in the mid-eighteenth century, the crown systematically sought to centralize power in its own hands and diminish that of its overseas possessions, appointing peninsular-born Spaniards to Audiencias. Central America - Central America - The Spanish conquest: Rodrigo de Bastidas was first to establish Spain’s claim to the isthmus, sailing along the Darién coast in March 1501, but he made no settlement. In areas of dense, stratified indigenous populations, especially Mesoamerica and the Andean region, Spanish conquerors awarded perpetual private grants of labor and tribute particular indigenous settlements, in encomienda were in a privileged position to accumulate private wealth. [146], For the conquest of Mexico, a 2019 an eight-episode Mexican TV miniseries Hernán depicts the conquest of Mexico. "Questionnaires from the Trial of the Second Marqués del Valle for Conspiracy, 1566" in, Fernández de Recas, Guillermo S. Cacicazgos y nobiliario indígena de la Nueva España. as Spaniards expanded their control over territories and their indigenous populations. In Hispaniola, the indigenous Taíno pre-contact population before the arrival of Columbus of several hundred thousand had declined to sixty thousand by 1509. These units were designated by the term “Colored”. The Philippine-American War, 1899–1902 After its defeat in the Spanish-American War of 1898, Spain ceded its longstanding colony of the Philippines to the United States in the Treaty of Paris. The crown sought to establish and maintain control over its overseas possessions through a complex, hierarchical bureaucracy, which in many ways was decentralized. Among the foodstuffs that became staples in European cuisine and could be grown there were tomatoes, squashes, bell peppers, and to a lesser extent in Europe chili peppers; also nuts of various kinds: Walnuts, cashews, pecans, and peanuts. The region overseen by the archbishop was divided into large units, the diocese, headed by a bishop. The second factor was the disease. Tap again to see term . Also See: Missions & Presidios of the United States. Depending on the conditions in a jurisdiction, the position of factor/veedor was often eliminated, as well. Americans would kill foreigners who resisted Washington’s rule. The individual leaders of expeditions assumed the expenses of the venture and in return received as reward the grant from the government of the conquered territories;[63] and in addition, they received instructions about treating the indigenous peoples. Cumaná in Venezuela was the first permanent settlement founded by Europeans in the mainland Americas,[18] in 1501 by Franciscan friars, but due to successful attacks by the indigenous people, it had to be refounded several times, until Diego Hernández de Serpa's foundation in 1569. According to the French historian Jean Dumont The Valladolid debate was a major turning point in world history “In that moment in Spain appeared the dawn of the human rights”. In the face of the impossibility of the Castilian institutions to take care of the New World affairs, other new institutions were created. Maya society under colonial rule: The collective enterprise of survival. The empire in the Indies was a newly established dependency of the kingdom of Castile alone, so crown power was not impeded by any existing cortes(i.e. The Spanish-American War was a giant step into a dramatic new world. The Viceroyalty of Perú was established in 1542. The diocesan clergy) (also called the secular clergy were under the direct authority of bishops, who were appointed by the crown, through the power granted by the pope in the Patronato Real. Farriss, Nancy Marguerite. [123] Religious orders along with the Jesuits then embarked on further evangelization in frontier regions of the empire. The Plan of Iguala was part of the peace treaty to establish a constitutional foundation for an independent Mexico. 1. tristang2. In 1542 Las Casas wrote a damning account of this genocide, A Short Account of the Destruction of the Indies. Mercury is a neurotoxin, which damaged and killed human and mules coming into contact with it. Even though Castile and Aragon were ruled jointly by their respective monarchs, they remained separate kingdoms so that when the Catholic Monarchs gave official approval for the plans for Columbus’s voyage to reach "the Indies" by sailing West, the funding came from the queen of Castile. Potosí (founded 1545) was in the zone of dense indigenous settlement, so that labor could be mobilized on traditional patterns to extract the ore. An important element for productive mining was mercury for processing high-grade ore. Peru had a source in Huancavelica (founded 1572), while Mexico had to rely on mercury imported from Spain. Archbishop Juan Rodríguez de Fonseca, Isabella's confessor, was tasked with reining in Columbus's independence. [142] Christopher Columbus: The Discovery (1992) has Georges Corroface as Columbus with Marlon Brando as Tomás de Torquemada and Tom Selleck as King Ferdinand and Rachel Ward as Queen Isabela. The crown was open to limiting the inheritance of encomiendas in perpetuity as a way to extinguish the coalescence of a group of Spaniards impinging on royal power. [106] In areas of previous indigenous empires with settled populations, the crown also melded existing indigenous rule into a Spanish pattern, with the establishment of cabildos and the participation of indigenous elites as officials holding Spanish titles. He then founded the settlement of Isabela on the island they named Hispaniola (now divided into Haiti and the Dominican Republic). The leader of an expedition, the adelantado was a senior with material wealth and standing who could persuade the crown to issue him a license for an expedition. Unknown to Pizarro, as he was lobbying for … Although the structure of the indigenous cabildo looked similar to that of the Spanish institution, its indigenous functionaries continued to follow indigenous practices. The Spanish conquest of the Aztec Empire was one of the most significant events in the Spanish colonization of the Americas.The campaign began in February 1519, and was declared victorious on August 13, 1521, when a coalition army of Spanish forces and native Tlaxcalan warriors led by Hernán Cortés and Xicotencatl the Younger captured Tenochtitlan, the capital of the Aztec Empire. The conquistadores were adventurous minor nobles and military officers fresh from the Reconquista of Spain from the Moors.After word of the discovery of silver in Mexico reached Spain, hundreds of these men rushed to America solely for the … They were called Conquistadors. There were a variable number of councilors (regidores), depending on the size of the town, also two municipal judges (alcaldes menores), who were judges of first instance, and also other officials as police chief, inspector of supplies, court clerk, and a public herald. 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